Essay about Bullied to death Relationship between...

â€Å"Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me.† Growing up many children heard this idiomatic expression that implies that physical actions can hurt you such as being hit with a stick or rock, but words or name calling can’t hurt you and you should just ignore it. Bullying has emerged in the 21st century as an important public health issue and there have been incidents where teasing and bullying have turned deadly (Burgess, A., Garbarino, C., Carlson, M. I., 2006). Children that experience any kind of bullying have an increased chance of committing suicide because each one believes that is their only chance to escape and stop suffering. Therefore, it is important to understand what bullying is, the role bullying†¦show more content†¦Bully, Victim, and Bully Victim Bullies are not always easy to detect because they are able to hide their bullying behavior (Burgess, Garbarino, and Carlson, 2006). It is also difficult to recognize their victims because they often internalize the experiences and feel too ashamed to seek help or stand up for their self. Past research studies characterized the roles of the participants as either bully or victim. Bullies are the aggressors and the victims are the people who are targeted by the bully. However, recent studies have found that some participants were actually â€Å"bully victims†. Bully victims are bullies sometimes and other times they are victim of bullies (Salmivalli, 2009). There is evidence that supports the idea that bullying victimization and perpetration are all associated with psychosocial problems (Borowsky, Taliaferro, and McMorris, 2013). According to evidence presented by Salmivalli (2009), people who bully others do so because of a personal idea that they need to attain a high status, be powerful and dominant in status as well as feel that they belong in their social group. Bullying and Mental Health According to Burgess, Garbarino, and Carlson (2006), research studies propose that bullying has negative short-term and long-term consequences for all individuals involved.There have been several studies completed that have demonstrated that there is significantShow MoreRelatedEssay about Bullying and Bullycide1685 Words   |  7 PagesBullying is defined as aggressive behaviour that is intentional and involves an imbalance of power and strength (1). From harsh words being wrote on the inside of bathroom stalls to being teased, socially exclude, physically assaulted and being hounded out on the internet, bullying appears to be escalating with no signs of stopping. The victims of bullies are often the targets for various reasons such as being too fat, too skinny, too quiet or in most cases being homosexual. Often times the victimsRead MorePersuasive Essay On Bullying1010 Words   |  5 Pages Bullying has been a crime for many years, yet what exactly are we doing to stop it? The most dangerous type of bullying is physical bullying. Google defines physical bullying as â€Å"using one’s body and physical bodily acts to exert power over peers.† Examples of physical bullying is punching, kicking, slapping and shoving. Bullies are quickly to judge other kids because of their disabilities, â€Å"Oh he can’t read, he’s so dumb!† not knowing exactly what they’re going through. People who bully otherRead MoreBullying And School System Are No Secret Essay1502 Words   |  7 PagesHannah Swan EdSE 620 Research paper 9/25/16 Bullying and Aggression in Schools Bullying and aggressive behavior in the school system are no secret. Many people have encountered a bully, or have been a bully at some point in their lives. According to the American Psychological Association (APA) bullying â€Å"is a form of aggressive behavior in which someone intentionally and repeatedly causes another person injury or discomfort. Bullying can take the form of physical contact, words or more subtleRead MoreTeen Suicide and Bullying1250 Words   |  5 PagesBullying is a worldwide problem that can be linked to teen suicide. The third leading cause of death in youth is suicide, which results in nearly 4,400 deaths per year (Centers for Disease Control, 2012). At least half of these deaths are caused by bullying. Although bullying is still seen by many to be a normal part of growing up, it is a severe problem that leads to many negative effects, including suicide. Unfortunately, there is not a definitive solution to this problem. However, there are multipleRead MoreNegative Effects Of Bullying On Children837 Words   |  4 Pages12/20/17 Megan Castles The Effects of Bullying in Children Bullying has become more of an issue that is threatening our younger generation today. Bullying is becoming more of a vicious act in public schools throughout the United States (Coloroso, 2003; Felix McMahon, 2006). There are many adverse effects that are caused by this disgraceful act. The average school-age child is silently or overtly tormented on a daily basis. Many of these students who experience bullying feel that they have no one to talkRead MoreBullying And Its Effects On Society1546 Words   |  7 Pages13, 2014 Bullying Continues to Worsen Rudeness can be defined in many ways, but the definition most fitting for this topic would be, lack of manners, discourtesy. It’s been around since the beginning of time, but it’s become increasingly popular in today’s society. There are infinite ways someone could be rude to others, for example not holding a door for the next person, making fun of someone, or even disrupting someone. One big problem in today’s generation is bullying. THESIS: Bullying has increasedRead MoreThe Lifetime Effects Of Bullying And Bullied808 Words   |  4 PagesTopic: The lifetime effects of bullying and being bullied General Purpose: To inform Specific Purpose: To give a clear understanding of the various concepts and theories the effects of bullying and/or being bullied can have on people during their adult lifespan. Thesis Statement: In the peer-reviewed article Bullying and Being Bullied in Childhood Are Associated with Different Psychosocial Risk Factors for Poor Physical Health in Men, authors Karen A. Matthews, Richard J. Jennings, Laisze LeeRead MoreTeenage Suicide On The Rise Essay1521 Words   |  7 PagesTeenage Suicide on the Rise: In 2011, James Rodemeyer, a 14 year old junior high school student from Buffalo revealed his bisexuality via the World Wide Web. The weeks following Rodemeyer experienced taunting, name calling, assault and isolation from his peers. Even his close friends refused to sit with him at lunch. Later that year, James Rodemeyer committed suicide.This case is just one of many where an adolescent feels that their is no other solution than to end their life. It is estimated thatRead MoreThe Relationship Between Bullying And Peer Relationship1596 Words   |  7 PagesThe Relationship Between Bullying and Peer Relationship In Middle Childhood Bullying is an unfortunate issue that many children face every day. When people think about bullying many imagine something like this; one child yelling at another to get his or her attention. Also, another scenario would be a child being bullied for their lunch or lunch money. However, today’s bullying issues have become much more severe. Unfortunately, today’s bullying antics could easily lead to physical and psychologicalRead MoreCyber Bullying : A Deep Seated Psychological Problem1359 Words   |  6 Pages Cyber Bullying Introduction Cyber bullying among teen occur when the teenagers harms or harass their peers over the information technology network. Cyber refers to any form of information technology and is not limited to social networks such as Facebook, blogs, twitter, SMS. It is important to note that an action can only be considered as bullying if it is repeated and conducted deliberately

What Kind Of Learner Am I - 1580 Words

What kind of learner am I? This is a question that used to bother me in the past and it still does. The goal of this essay is to answer my question and finding out more about my role in a team, the way I behave and why, so I can both improve as a person and as a member of group. In the following paragraphs, I will explain the Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles theory (Gallagher, 2013) and the impact your learning style has in your group s teamwork. I will discuss the type of members we can usually find in a group and in which category I include myself, but also about what learning styles I prefer and why. The four major learning styles are learning methods that individuals naturally prefer, as illustrated by Honey, P. Mumford, A. (1982) those styles are the Activist style, the Theorist style, the Pragmatist style and the Reflector Style where each of them has their own characteristics. The purpose of realising which style you prefer and understanding it is to maximise your learning capacity as P. Honey explained: â€Å"Learning to learn is your most important capability since it provides the gateway to everything else you want to develop† Another important model that divides learning into separate styles is the Anthony Gregorc s model which uses two perceptual qualities â€Å"Concrete† and â€Å"Abstract† and two ordering abilities â€Å"Random† and â€Å"Sequential†. The qualities and abilities combined all together result in Gregorc s four styles: Concrete Sequential, Concrete Random,Show MoreRelatedPersonal Learning Style894 Words   |  4 Pages I recently researched the four main learning styles, which helped me to determine which of the four I thought I was best matched with. These four learning styles are: visual learning, auditory or linguistic learning, reading/writing-preference learning, and kinesthetic. Visual learners like to see what they are being taught, such as looking at an over-head projection. Auditory learners like listening to lectures and discussions. Reading and writing learners prefer to read textbooksRead MoreMy Learning About Myself As A Learner And Biology1523 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout this semester my learning about myself as a learner and biology is backed by multiple changes in my study habits with the evidence included in my documentation, self-regulation, critical reflection, integration, and my collaboration with a Community of Practice. I enrolled in this Principles of Biology class this semester because it was a requirement for my major. This class is important for my long term goals because it is a requirement for me to achieve those goals. Those goals includeRead MoreTypes of Study Skills Essays1314 Words   |  6 Pagesinformation. It is difficult to let people study all of them, how to study and what to study becomes a problem. Therefore, we have different study skills to help us study them; Cognitive Learning Styles; Info processing model chart; Time management and goal setting; Twelve Principles of Memory; Brain Dominance Theory and the no te taking are part of them. Many people keep asking the best study skill, but in my opinion, I think what they are looking for is the suitable way to study. Cognitive Learning StylesRead MorePhone Script For Speaking Interview Essay811 Words   |  4 PagesPhone Script for Speaking Interview (with sample elicitation) Hello. This is (Name of Tester) from Global LT. Am I speaking with (Name of Testee)? I am calling to complete your Oral Language Proficiency Assessment. We will be recording this call for scoring purposes. Is that fine? Before we get started, I will ask you a few questions to get started speaking in (Target Language). This is not part of the test. (Choose a few questions as a warm-up. The number of questions will depend on the learner’sRead MoreThe Violence Of South African Schools Perpetrated On Teachers By Learners Essay1690 Words   |  7 Pagescause injury or disctruction. I strongly agree on this definition and to further more explain the definition, I will use King Shaka Zulu when he used violence in order to gain power or kingdom. We as African used violence to fight over white domination in our country that means violence in African people is running deep on their /our veins. Violence happens in many places but in this essay I will look at violence in South African schools perpetrated on teachers by learners. I will begin the essay by givingRead MoreIs Procrastination A Complex Psychological Behavior?1312 Words   |  6 PagesI find I leave things to the last minute when I am havi ng difficulty with assignments and find myself procrastinating regularly. Procrastination is a complex psychological behavior that affects everyone to some degree or another. With some it can be a minor problem; with others it is a source of considerable stress and anxiety. Procrastinators often know exactly what they should be doing, even if they cannot do it, which is why very detailed schedules are usually no help. Cal Poly (2012. P.1) IRead MoreNot A Tertiary Trained Teacher981 Words   |  4 Pagesbetter than watching people achieve something new for the first time. Young learners are sponges for information (as well as pre-learners) and given the right motivation, they seem to be capable of almost anything. Passing down the passion is about passing down to the generation. Educationalists see in their leaners tiny reflections of themselves and educationalist are teaching their passion. There are many diverse kinds of Educationalists in the world and most educationalists have a passion. TheyRead MoreOnline Learners : An Online Learner958 Words   |  4 PagesAs an online learner you are studying without the physical attendance of a classroom. You study at home, work or wherever you like, whenever you like, without a set time. You set your own schedule and study at your own pace. As a previous online learner almost a year ago studying a diploma, I have some insight to what it is like to be exposed to that ki nd of environment as I have studied before, it takes motivation and the eager determination to learn. If you prefer to study at your own pace whereRead MoreWhy I Am An Athlete998 Words   |  4 PagesAfter completing the Clifton strengthfinders test, I learned my dominant strengths and it gave me a sense on what areas I am strong in. It allows you to work in the areas that you are good in and not in the ones you might not be as strong in. My top five strengths were learner, connectedness, belief, positivity, and includer. A lot of these I figured I would have because I am an athlete and I love to be positive. That is good because I practice these strengths every day which in turn will make meRead MoreEnneagram Reflection1518 Words   |  7 Pagespersonality. But what if you could learn exactly what type of person you are? That is what intrigued me when I heard about the Enneagram system. I have taken personality quizzes before, but none were as accurate as the Enneagram. By takin g this quiz, I learned more about myself than I realized I knew. The largest components of this questionnaire are the center, wings, and arrows. One’s personality is more complex than it seems. Even though I am classified to a particular group, I blend into other

Reading English 6 Essay free essay sample

A. Compare the three main types of plate boundaries. How do they work? How are they similar and different? There are three different plate boundaries. There is convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries. They all do different motions. Convergent boundaries are boundaries where the two plates are coming at each other or converging. Divergent boundaries are boundaries where two plates are moving away from each other or diverging. Transform boundaries are boundaries where two plates are shearing past each other or one plate moves to the left and the other moves to the right. Convergent Boundary A convergent boundary consists of two tectonic plates or fragments of the lithosphere that come together. If an oceanic plate was involved subduction would occur. Subduction is when two plates converge and one goes under the other. Usually if there are two oceanic plates coming together the older/denser plate would get subducted. If there was a continental plate with an oceanic plate the oceanic plate would subduct, because it is denser, but it is a whole different story if they are both continental plates. We will write a custom essay sample on Reading English 6 Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Since they are both continental there is no subduction mainly, but there is a collision. They become crumpled and faulted which make the biggest mountain ranges, like the Himalayan Mountain Range. B. What real world boundary have you chosen? Where is it located (countries involved, general area of the world, etc. )? My team chose the Cascadia Fault. The plates involved are the Juan de Fuca plate and the North American plate. The countries involved are United States and Canada. It is in northern California, Oregon, and Washington. For Canada it is just the southern part of it. It is in the Northern Hemisphere of Earth. C. Describe in detail how the plates of your real world example are moving. Pay particular attention to details such as crust types of the plates involved, processes that are ongoing, etc. D. What kind of stress is occurring at your real world boundary? How does the stress affect the rock? E. Describe the area around your real world plate boundary. What are some unique landforms (continental and/or oceanic) created by your real world boundary? F. What type of fault is associated with your real world plate boundary? Explain how the footwall and the hanging wall move. G. Identify at least two other areas of the world where you could you find a boundary like the one you researched.

The Netherlands Essays - Benelux, Netherlands, Western Europe

The Netherlands The Netherlands is low-lying country in western Europe located west of Germany and north of Belgium. According to a 1993 estimate, the Netherlands had a population of 15,224,942. The overall population density was about 449 persons per sq km (about 1162 per sq mi) which makes it one of the most densely populated countries in the world. About 89 percent of the population live in urban areas. The largest cities are Amsterdam (population, 1992 estimate, 713,407), the country's capital; Rotterdam (589,707), one of the world's leading seaports; The Hague (445,287), the nation's seat of government; and Utrecht (232,705), a manufacturing hub. The official language of the Netherlands is Dutch, which is spoken throughout the country. The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government operating under an 1812 constitution with amendments. The hereditary monarch, who has had little power in running the government since the constitution was revised in 1848, acts as the head of the state while the principal executive official of the country is the prime minister. He is appointed by the monarch and heads a cabinet that is responsible to the States-General (legislature). The Dutch parliament, called the States-General, consists of a First Chamber, composed of 75 members elected to terms of up to six years by the provincial legislatures, and a Second Chamber, made up of 150 members popularly elected to terms of up to four years under a system of proportional representation. Either or both chambers may be dissolved by the monarch on condition that new elections be held within 40 days. The Second Chamber is by far the more important of the two; the First Chamber has little more than a ra rely exercised veto power over the legislative process. The Netherlands uses systems of proportional representation in electing municipal, provincial, and national assemblies. This allows even small political parties to win a seat. In the 1986 Second Chamber elections, for example, more than 25 parties took part and nine won seats. On the national level, the Netherlands has always been governed by coalitions of parties, the formation of which has often proved difficult. However, one such coalition was formed in 1994 between the PvdA (Labor), VVD (Conservative Liberals), and D66 (Social Liberals). The PvdA and VVD are parties that have both been around for quite some time. What made the 1994 election so big was the defeat of the CDA (Christian Democrats) by D66. This combination of parties proved to be quite advantageous to the Netherlands. It was the first government since 1917, when the suffrage was extended to all male adults, without Christian Democrats (Van der Brug 179). During the reign of this coalition, the economy of the Netherlands soared. Consumer spending increased and unemployment decreased to a low of 5 percent in the first quarter of 1998 There is no such doubt about the performance of the Dutch economy. Gross domestic product (GDP) has expanded strongly in the last two years - by 2.7 percent in 1996 and 3.4 per cent in 1997- and analysts expect GDP Growth to be even higher in 1998 (Mottershaw 9). With all of the economic growth that happening in the Netherlands, one would assume that the elections of 1998 would keep the same coalition together. However, in a multiparty system such as the Netherlands, things are never that simple. Governing parties may be collaborating partners in coalition, but, in the run-up to the election they increasingly become opponents competing for votes (Van der Brug 180). This competition for votes is exactly what took place in the 1998 elections. The popularity of the prime minister Wim Kok and his party, PvdA, won the party more seats which were taken from the D66. D66 also gave up some seats to other small parties such as the Socialist Party and the Green Left. The results of this recent election have caused a major stir in the country and around the world. Since the ?purple' coalition was created in 1994 D66 has played a pivotal role, bridging the gap between the two main parties. However, with their seats reduced by nearly half - from 24 to 14 - the party's participation in the ruling coalition is no

Free Essays on Analytical Book Review Of The Communist Manifesto

Marx, Karl and Frederick Engels The Communist Manifesto International Publishers, New York I. Marx begins the Communist Manifesto with his famous generalization that â€Å"the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles† (9). He distinguishes these classes in terms of two parties, one party as oppressor, the other as oppressed. In history human societies have mainly been organized according to complex class hierarchies consisting of many members. The demise of feudalism in response to the French Revolution brought on a simplification of class antagonism, dividing society into only two classes: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat. A long historical process is the result of the affairs occurring at this time. At the discovery of the New World in the 16th and 17th centuries new methods of production and exchange were required in order to move forward. There was a demand for more efficient, larger scale production, and the medieval guild system was replaced by new methods of manufacturing. As industrialization occurred it was the Bourgeoisie (Capitalists) who were leaders in economic revolutions. As the Bourgeoisie gained economic power they also gained political power. In the middle of the 19th century they had come to control the representative states of Europe. In the book Marx proclaims the â€Å"the executive of the modern State is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole Bourgeoisie† (11). Along with the political empowerment of the Bourgeoisie came the introduction of an ethic based on the absolute right to free trade and pursuit of profit. For the Bourgeoisie it wasn’t m erely enough to change the past, but it must also constantly change the present in order to expand its markets. In response to this the nations are pressured toward globalization, which demands that they adhere to Bourgeoisie practice. As Marx states in the Manifesto, in this way the Bourgeoisie â€Å"create the wor... Free Essays on Analytical Book Review Of The Communist Manifesto Free Essays on Analytical Book Review Of The Communist Manifesto Marx, Karl and Frederick Engels The Communist Manifesto International Publishers, New York I. Marx begins the Communist Manifesto with his famous generalization that â€Å"the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles† (9). He distinguishes these classes in terms of two parties, one party as oppressor, the other as oppressed. In history human societies have mainly been organized according to complex class hierarchies consisting of many members. The demise of feudalism in response to the French Revolution brought on a simplification of class antagonism, dividing society into only two classes: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat. A long historical process is the result of the affairs occurring at this time. At the discovery of the New World in the 16th and 17th centuries new methods of production and exchange were required in order to move forward. There was a demand for more efficient, larger scale production, and the medieval guild system was replaced by new methods of manufacturing. As industrialization occurred it was the Bourgeoisie (Capitalists) who were leaders in economic revolutions. As the Bourgeoisie gained economic power they also gained political power. In the middle of the 19th century they had come to control the representative states of Europe. In the book Marx proclaims the â€Å"the executive of the modern State is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole Bourgeoisie† (11). Along with the political empowerment of the Bourgeoisie came the introduction of an ethic based on the absolute right to free trade and pursuit of profit. For the Bourgeoisie it wasn’t m erely enough to change the past, but it must also constantly change the present in order to expand its markets. In response to this the nations are pressured toward globalization, which demands that they adhere to Bourgeoisie practice. As Marx states in the Manifesto, in this way the Bourgeoisie â€Å"create the wor...

Confirming Supreme Court Nominees - How Long It Takes

Confirming Supreme Court Nominees - How Long It Takes U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia died unexpectedly in February 2016, leaving President Barack Obama with a rare opportunity to nominate a third member of the nations highest court and dramatically swing the ideological balance to the left. Within hours of Scalias death, though, a partisan fight erupted over whether Obama should choose Scalias replacement or leave the choice to the president being elected in 2016. Senate Republican leaders vowed to stall or block an Obama nominee. Related Story: What Are Obamas Chances of Replacing Scalia? The political battle raised an interesting question: How long does it actually take the Senate to confirm a presidents Supreme Court nominee? And would there be enough time in the last year of Obamas second and final term to push a nominee through the often nasty confirmation process? Scalia was found dead on Feb. 13, 2016. There were 342 days remaining in Obamas term. Here are three things to know about how long it takes to confirm Supreme Court nominees. 1. It Takes An Average of 25 Days An analysis of Senate action on Supreme Court nominees since 1900 found that it takes less than a month - 25 days to be precise - for the a candidate to be either confirmed or rejected, or in some cases to withdraw from consideration altogether. 2. Current Court Members Were Confirmed in 2 Months The eight members of the Supreme Court at the time of Scalias death were confirmed in an average of 68 days, an analysis of government records found. Heres a look at how many days the Senate took to confirm members of those eight Supreme Court justices, from shortest duration to longest: John G. Roberts Jr. - 19 days. He was nominated by President George W. Bush on Sept. 6, 2005, and confirmed on Sept. 25 by a vote of 78 to 22.Ruth Bader Ginsburg - 50 days. She was nominated by President Bill Clinton on June 14, 1993, and confirmed on Aug. 3, 1993, by a vote of 96 to 3.Anthony M. Kennedy  Ã‚  - 65 days. He was nominated by President Ronald Reagan on Nov. 30, 1987, and confirmed on Feb 3, 1988, by a vote of 97 to 0.Sonia Sotomayor  - 66 days. She was nominated by President Barack Obama on June 1, 2009, and was confirmed on August 6, 2009, by a vote of 68 to 31.Stephen G. Breyer- 74 days. He was nominated by President Bill Clinton on May 17, 1994, and confirmed on July 29, 1994, by a vote of 87 to 9.  Ã‚     Samuel Anthony Alito Jr  Ã‚  - 82 days. He was nominated by President George W. Bush on Nov. 10, 2005, and confirmed on Jan. 31, 2006, by a vote of 58 to 42.Elena Kagan  - 87 days. She was nominated by Obama on May 10, 2010, and confirmed on Augu st 5, 2010, by a vote of 63-37.Clarence Thomas - 99 days. He was nominated by President George H.W. Bush on July 8, 1991, and confirmed on Oct. 15, 1991, by a vote of 52 to 48. 3. The Longest Confirmation Ever Took 125 Days The longest the U.S. Senate has ever take to confirm a Supreme Court nominee was 125 days, or more than four months, according to government records. The nominee was Louis Brandeis, the first Jew to ever be chosen for a seat on the high court. President Woodrow Wilson tapped Brandeis on Jan. 28, 1916, and the Senate didnt vote until June 1 of that year. Brandeis, who entered Harvard Law School without earning a traditional college degree beforehand, faced allegations of holding political views that were too radical. His most vocal critics included former presidents of the American Bar Association and former President William Howard Taft. He is not a fit person to be a member of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Bar Association presidents wrote. The second-longest confirmation battle ended with the rejection of the nominee, Reagan pick Robert Bork, after 114 days, Senate records show. Bonus Fact: Last Election-Year Nominee Was Confirmed in 2 Months Funny things happen in presidential election years, however. Lame-duck presidents get very little done and are often powerless. That being said, the last time a president pushed for confirmation of a Supreme Court justice during a presidential-election year was in 1988, for Reagans choice of Kennedy for the court. The Senate, controlled by Democrats at the time, took 65 days to confirm the Republican presidents nominee. And it did so unanimously, 97 to 0.

Climate Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Climate Change - Essay Example By the records, prior to the advent of the industrial revolution, the levels of carbon dioxide were way lower than they are today (NASA, 2013). By the end of 2010, the levels of carbon dioxide stood at 389 parts per million as compared to 280 parts per million before the industrial revolution (Doyle, 2013). Records dating to as early as 1500 designate that there has been a steady increase in temperatures as Metz notes (Metz, 2010). Research carried out by UK and U.S based environmental research and scientific institutions show that since the late 1900’s, global average temperature has increased by 0.8 degrees (Hayward, 2014). This rate of increase might appear trifling but according to scientists, it is one of the strongest indicators of the rapid climatic changes happening on earth (Balonnof, 2013). In addition, scientists advise that if climatic change is not urgently addressed, by 2050, the rates of temperature increase should be expected to be between 2.6 and 4.5 degrees ( VOA, 2014). Another imperative statistic from scientists is the verity that there is an over 40% increase in the rates of carbon dioxide and alarmingly, half of this has occurred after the 1970’s (Braasch, 2013). 98% of scientists collectively agree that 98% of the climatic change (with much emphasis on global warming) is caused by human activities (Gleb, 2013). To what extent is the climatic change man-made? Some people have argued that climatic change should not be ascribed to human activities.

The Representation of Masculinity in Die Hard 2 Essay

The Representation of Masculinity in Die Hard 2 - Essay Example In Renny Harlin’s film Die Hard 2 (1990), masculinity has both physical and mental power over femininity. According to Carroll (2003, p.54) John McLane, the Die Hard series’ principal character, is a prime example of masculine dominance, and ‘studies in the film field pay specific attention to the Herculean physical performances and spectacular body appearances of starring characters’. Although heroes play important roles in many successful films, most of these female characters are known only in relation to the films’ male heroes, which is partly due to male domination in society. This paper will analyze the representation of masculinity in Die Hard 2, and incorporate arguments from work by Mulvey (1975), Neale (1983) and Tasker (2004). Die Hard 2 tells the story of New York police officer, John McLane, played by Bruce Willis. The film’s opening scene takes place on Christmas Eve, when McLane visits his wife in Los Angeles (Gates 2006, p.35). McLane has what Rzepka and Horsley term ‘unresolved issues’ (2010, p.89); consequently, he is not in good terms with his wife. When McLane arrives in Los Angeles, he finds his wife at an office Christmas party, and supposed political terrorists then invade the building where the party is taking place. The film portrays McLane’s heroic attempts to save his wife from these terrorists. In Die Hard 2, as in many action films, masculine characters possess virile physical prowess and display social dominance. Social dominance, in this case, is a term used to refer to the position that the said characters hold in their spheres of influence as the main characters. This can be seen as in the case of John McLane, who is a police officer and his role in society qualifies to be dominant. Another important aspect of masculine heroes in action films is their excessive aggression. Prior studies of Hollywood’s films that primarily focus their attention on male characters characterize Die Hard 2 as a male-driven action film, with the ‘presentation of the lead hero as a macho man’ (Milestone and Meyer 2012, p. 50). This is due to McLane’s spectacular ability to wrestle his enemies, which is often a trait of the hero in male-driven films. This is due to the nature masochism in male characters in action films, where the characters are meant to be heroes with all the skill at making the evil characters come down to their knees. Carroll comments that the ‘physical masculinity of an action hero gives a preferential tone for the action narrative’, which refers to the progression of the masculine characters in film (2003, p.79). In Le Guin, (Goodwill 2009, p.13) it is found that audiences tend to accept male characters’ heroism in films, whereas they tend to find female heroism less acceptable. This is due to the social and cultural notion that males are physically and mentally stronger than females, thus making them heroes at the expense of female characters. Rzepka and Horsley define masculinity in film as ‘an opinion that a film-maker intends to deliver that involves physical prowess, sexual virility and aggression’ (2010, p. 61). Gates argues that Die Hard 2 focuses on physicality: the way that McLane is displayed as a hero ‘forms a vital ingredient of a film’s visual effects’ (2006, p. 58). Similarly, Bould states that literature on action heroes

HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry Essay Example for Free

HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry Essay The International Journal of Human Resource Management 9:1 February 1998 HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry: A comparative study of Australia and Singapore Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Abstract This study explores the perceptions of HR managers on the strategic management of labour tumover in a selection of large hotels in Australia and Singapore, The main argument is that the effects of labour tumover can be mitigated with strategically managed human resources through the four key HR activities. The hotel industries in both Singapore and Australia revealed a comparable range of HR policies and practices being adopted, with an explicit recognition of the contribution an organizations human resources have on the bottom-line. There was a clear convergence towards minimizing tumover primarily through the recruitment, selection and induction processes. This was despite fundamental social, economic and labour differences between Singapore and Australia, Keywords Human resources, HR functions, labour tumover, hotel industry Introduction In recent years, there has been widening recognition that human resource management (HRM) strategies impact on an organizations perfomiance and bottom-line results, contributing to overall effectiveness (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995). Particularly in the service industry, the effective utilization of human resources can give an organization its competitive edge (Schneider and Bowen, 1993). This has led to an increased interdependency of corporate strategy with human resource management (HRM), By effectively linking HRM with organizational objectives and needs, human resources can be recruited, developed, motivated and retained towards gaining a competitive advantage, i.e. strategic HRM. In this unique industry, that essentially comprises both a production and a service aspect, both the creation and the rendering of services from the hotel to the customer are primarily achieved through the employee, i.e. the hotels representative. Therefore, the people essentially represent the industry (Lewis, 1989; Thompson and Abbott, 1990; Schneider and Bowen, 1993). The success of this industry is therefore dependent on the calibre of its employees and how effectively they are managed in order that they help the organization achieve its objectives (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995; Berger and Ghei, 1995). It is essential that the hotel industry develop efficient HRM practices and policies that enable them to recruit, select and retain competent employees who contribute to the achievement of their objectives. However, the hotel industry is constantly plagued with high staff tumover levels, resulting in high personnel costs incurred because of recruiting and training new replacements (Hom and Griffeth, 1995). With few staff staying longer than five years 0985-5192  © Routledge 1998 HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 137 (BTR, 1990, cited in Nankervis, 1990), tumover contributes significantly to labour costs through high replacement costs (Riley, 1991a). With a skilled labour force needed in the trade and hotels increasingly providing the required training, premature tumover may waste a hotels sizeable investment in employee development (Beckert and Walsh, 1991; Hom and Griffeth, 1995). Many tumover studies have focused on other industry causes and effects. To date, however, comprehensive and substantial studies have not been conducted to determine the direct and indirect causes of tumover in the hotel industry, although some hotels have undertaken individual tumover analyses to address this issue (Nankervis, 1991; Debrah, 1994). This could be attributed to the fact that, even though employee tumover has financial consequences, the problem is often ignored because the costs are indirect and hidden (Donelly, cited in Hiemstra, 1990). Furthermore, many hotels may consider it simply part of doing business in this industry. This paper outlines some recent research which examined the impact of HR policies and practices in the respective hotel industries on labour tumover, specifically through the processes of (1) recruitment and selection, (2) orientation and socialization, (3) training and development, (4) performance management and (5) remuneration. The study focused on a selection of medium to large hotels in Singapore and Australia. Labour turnover and the hotel industry Denvir and McMahon (1992: 143) defined labour tumover as the movement of people into and out of employment within an organization. It can be voluntary or involuntary. Correspondingly, on the basis that people leave an organization for a multitude of reasons that may not be management-related, Eade (1993) further categorizes tumover into controllable and unavoidable tumover. For the purpose of this study, the focus was on voluntary and controllable tumover. Tumover in the hospitality industry has been shown to be unacceptably high (Kennedy and Berger, 1994), averaging up to 200 or 300 per cent per annum (Woods, 1992; Tanke, 1990; Boella, 1988; Wheelhouse, 1989), although substantial variations exist between different establishments. The literature has so far identified factors that impact on tumover rates as orientation and socialization processes (Kennedy and Berger, 1994; Woods, 1992); ad hoc recruitment and selection procedures (Bonn and Forbringer, 1992; Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Wagner, 1991; Wheelhouse, 1989); discrimination at the workplace (Antolik, 1993); training and development opportunities (Hogan, 1992; Hiemstra, 1990; Conrade et al., 1994); management styles (LeeRoss, 1993; Boella, 1988; Wheelhouse, 1989; Rowden, 1995; Woods and Macaulay, 1989); organizational commitment (Denvir and McMahon, 1992); competition and organizational culture (Woods and Macaulay, 1989); labour shortage (Debrah, 1994; Woods, 1992); stress and bumout (Vallen, 1993; Woods, 1992; Hom and Griffeth, 1995); the seasonal nature of the industry (Boella, 1988; Denvir and McMahon, 1992); and job dissatisfaction (Bonn and Forbringer, 1992; Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Wheelhouse, 1989). Relatedly, Denvir and McMahon suggested that labour tumover is not an isolated occurrence, where multi-dimensional aspects include low staff morale, substandard work performance and absenteeism (1992: 143). Each incident of employee tumover is estimated to cost up to $2500 in direct costs and $1600 in indirect costs (Hogan, 1992). However, the pervasive impacts of labour tumover on a hotels bottom line can be classified into two categories: (1) direct expenditure and (2) intangible costs. 138 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Direct impacts are essentially financial consequences that include administrative costs as a result of increased recruitment and training expenditure of new employees (Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Boelia, 1988; Woods, 1992; Riley, 1991a; Mullins, 1995; Mercer, 1988). The indirect consequences of tumover include productivity losses due to unfamiliarity of the workplace, poor service quality as a result of insufficient manpower (Denvir and McMahon, 1992; Riley, 1991a; Wheelhouse, 1989), compromised standards and low morale due to the constant departures of workmates; which are in tum integrally damaging to the hotels reputation (Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Riley, 1991a; Mullins, 1995) because dissatisfaction in the employee will ultimately lead to the dissatisfaction of the customer (Lewis, 1989; Boelia, 1988; Woods, 1992). Samuel (1969, cited in Denvir and McMahon, 1992: 144) summarized this when he stated that discontinuity in employment discourages people from entering the industry and encourages others to leave i t . . . [preventing] continuing relationships between employers and employees and so inhibits the growth of mutual responsibility. It involves heavy administration costs and a substantial loss of productivity through the breaking up of teams who are used to working together. However, Mount argues that labour tumover within an organization may not necessarily be detrimental. Rather, an organization thats choosing to thrive and grow must expect a higher tumover rate than companies that settle for the status quo . . . [where] more talented and experienced people replace those that are leaving, and the new workers take the organization to the next level (1995: 109). Price found that the hotel industry tended to live with high levels of labour tumover and rely on the extemal labour market to fill vacancies (1994: 47). However, high labour tumover cannot be excused as an inherent characteristic feature of the hotel industry (Mullins, 1995). Mullins suggested that an organization can theoretically influence tumover by various intervention processes (1995: 185) that include placement and orientation, job performance and training and development. Denvir and McMahon (1992: 146) further argued that individual hotels experience different levels of labour tumover, thereby confirming the view that tumover is partly within the control of management, and conflicts with the widespread impression that tumover is high and uniform throughout the industry, and hence an uncontrollable characteristic of the trade. This might therefore suggest that tumover is, in effect, manageable through effective and strategic human resource practices. Based on a recent pilot study undertaken by one of the authors (Cheng, 1996), the hotel industries would be perceived to have recognized the adverse effects of labour tumover (Debrah, 1994; Nankervis, 1993b) through the adoption of strategic human resource management practices. Specifically, five variables that will be considered are: (1) recruitment and selection; (2) orientation and socialization; (3) training and development; (4) performance management; and (5) remuneration. Central to all these process es [however,] is the critical activity of recmitment and selection practices (Mullins, 1995: 185). There have been numerous studies conducted on labour tumover that have focused on other industries. These may not be applicable due to the unique features of the hotel industry, as discussed earlier. For example, the organizational structure of the hotel may be a major determinant in influencing labour tumover, as compared to other industries. Riley (1991a: 18, 1991b: 237) estimates that operative and unskilled staff comprise up to 64 per cent of the entire staff population. This might therefore indicate limited HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 139 promotional and developmental opportunities for lower-level employees, resulting in a movement of staff out of that organization to one that provides better career options. Labour turnover in hotels in Singapore and Australia Labour tumover in the Australian and Singaporean hotel industries has not been substantially researched and documented. This is despite the significant contributions made by the tourism industries in both countries to the respective economies. Tourism is arguably the nations largest single export earner in Australia (EIU, 1994b), with Singapores tourism correspondingly generating a surplus on its balance of payments travel account of around S$5 billion per year in recent years (EIU, 1994a). Employment growth in the hotel industry in both Singapore and Australia has been significant during the past decade (Table 1). A number of new large hotels have opened in both countries, creating significant job opportunities. In Singapore, this has been in a context of generally tight labour markets which has forced hotels into employing more part-time staff (Debrah, 1994). Correspondingly, in Australia, many of the jobs which have been created by the growth in the industry have also been part time, although not due to labour shortages. A survey of the Australian industry in 1991 (KPMG Peat Marwick Management, 1991) indicated a relatively plentiful supply of employees to the industry, although it noted that a general economic downturn in the industry was apparent at the time. Comparatively, surveys of the Singapore labour situation indicated significant shortages of labour in the industry (Debrah, 1994) The figures in Table 2 indicate that the hotel sector in Australia employs a much higher proportion of part timers than that in Singapore. Many jobs,  such as waiting Table 1 Growth in employment in the hotel industry Singapore Australia Year No. of employees Year No of employees 1980 1987 1992 38,620 54,412 74,136 1983 1986 1993 17,617 22,001 29,770 Source: Singapore, Department of Statistics, Economic Surveys Series, Hotels and Catering. ABS Cat No 8674 Table 2 Work-force composition Futl time Status Part time Age profile 70% of employees 35% of employees Australia 43,766 30,370(41%) 35 yrs 25 years Singapore 25,719 3,958(15%) 40 yrs 25 yrs Source: ABS Labour Force Australia, May 1991, Cat No 6203.0, ABS Cat No 8674: STPB Singapore Tourism and Promotion Board 1992 Survey of Tourism Manpower Deployment in Singapore; Economic Surveys Series, Hotels and Catering 1993; Department of Statistics 1995 140 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Table 3 Turnover rates in the hotel industry per annum Australia Singapore 45% 42% Source: Callus et al, 1991; 1995 Singapore Yearbook of Labour Statistics, Ministry of Labour (1991 figures) staff, kitchen hands and bar staff, are seen as transient jobs by young people such as students, due mainly to relatively few skill barriers and ease of entry. The data in Table 2 also show that the hotel labour force in both countries is relatively youthful. An implication of these statistics is that tumover in the hotel industry is partly due to the casual employment characteristics of the labour force, particularly in Australia. In Singapore, the relatively long period of buoyant labour market conditions may have led to job hopping. The tumover rates for the hotel and recreation industries is generally three times greater than the average for other industry groups in Australia (Callus et al., 1991), while in Singapore it is about average among various occupational groups (Singapore Ministry of Labour, 1995). However, these industry figures do disguise tumover rates at individual establishments which can vary considerably, as shown in the sample of hotels for this study. For Australia, the highest tumover rates are for front-line and service employees where the rate averages 43 per cent. Tumover is lower in larger hotels (KPMG Peat Marwick Management, 1991) and varies slightly according to gender, with annual tumover rates averaging 45 per cent for males and 38 per cent for females. The paucity of documented research and studies is evident through the limited amount and quality of material in this area. Studies on labour tumaround and retention have primarily focused on the UK and US hospitality industries (Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Bonn and Forbringer, 1992; Hogan, 1992; Alfus, 1992; Feiertag, 1993; Kennedy and Berger, 1994; Denvir and McMahon, 1992). The exception is Debrahs (1994) study of operative staff in Singapores hotel industry in view of environmental influences. Research design The study adopted a qualitative approach, employing a comparative case-study methodology towards researching the Australian and Singaporean hotel industries HR programmes on tumover. Commonly, qualitative research is where the study is done in its natural settings in an attempt to interpret phenomena through the meanings associated with them. Correspondingly, this research focuses on the phenomenon of labour tumover in the hotel industry, interpreted through the perceptions of HR managers within that trade. This qualitative approach also involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials, e.g. grounded theory procedure, surveys, observations, etc. (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). Specifically, a personal interview, examination of relevant documents and multi-case study method were used for data collection and data analysis, respectively. The sample size for the study was six hotels in each country. They were medium-tolarge hotels, managed either as part of a consortium, an intemational chain, or as HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 141 individual properties. An exploration of the views of HR managers, or managers responsible for the HR function, on the potential impact of HR strategies on managing labour turnover within their organizations was sought. In some cases follow-up telephone interviews were held with relevant HR personnel to clarify matters raised in the initial personal interviews. The targeted respondents were considered suitable on the premise that the participants, all senior managers, were primarily responsible for the development, formulation and implementation of key HR processes and strategies in relation to managing labour tumover, and would therefore have the required knowledge of HRM practices and business strategies (Ragburam  and Arvey, 1994). Consequently, this research basically reflects the perspectives and perceptions of these participants. The small sample size of twelve, typical of a study of this qualitative nature (Gay and Diehl, 1992), was considered appropriate, offering the opportunity to glimpse the complicated operations, character and culture of the hotel industry. In qualitative research, the sample tends to be small and purposeful, where the purpose lies in selecting information-rich cases for study in depth (Patton, 1990: 169). The subject population was pre-selected based on the primary criteria of size and rating of the hotel, i.e. at least 250 rooms and a minimum rating of four stars. However, the final sample was selected and determined on the basis of accessibility to the hotels and their targeted respondents. The sample for the Australian study came from the state of Westem Australia. Tumover rates in individual hotels ranged from 26 to 47 per cent per annum for Australia. Corresponding data for Singapore ranged from 48 to 120 per cent, although the highest tumover rate was for a new property which had only recently opened. Findings An equal sample size of six hotels was studied in each country. Although the properties in Singapore were generally larger in size and staff than in Australia i.e. maximum staff and rooms at 1,300 and 1,200 respectively in the fomier country, compared with 440 and 417 respectively in the latter human resource strategies employed in both cultures were largely similar. However, due to the different labour markets of the two industries, there were inherent differences in the importance and priorities placed on HR strategies, with regard to controlling and minimizing labour tumover. These are discussed below. Recruitment and selection Hiring practices employed by the hotels in both countries can be seen as having progressed from the adoption of purely traditional (advertising, walk-ins, selection interviews, reference checking, etc.) to more strategic approaches (networking, intemal labour market, behavioural interviewing, targeted selection, etc.) (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995; Nankervis, 1993b). This has primarily been influenced by changing labour markets, as well as the clear recognition that mitigating labour tumover begins with the hiring function, specifically the selection process. This is consistent with current literature that highlights selection as the predominant variable impacting on eventual tumover rates (Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Boles et al., 1995; Mercer, 1988; Dunn, 1995; Woods and Macauley, 1989), albeit recmitment and selection is generally considered an integrated function (MuUins, 1995; Croney, 1988; Nankervis, 1993b). 142 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown This progress seems to be in part due to the general realization that people ultimately represent the crux of the industry, where they are the product and the providers of service (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995; Mullins, 1995; Thompson and Abbott, 1990; Lewis, 1989; Schneider and Bowen, 1993; Berger and Ghei, 1995). Hence, the ability to hire and retain the right kind of people to fit the organization, and give the organization a competitive edge (Schneider and Bowen, 1993) begins primarily with the selection process (Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Boles et al. 1995; Eade, 1993; Mercer, 1988; Dunn, 1995). There is evidence that hotels in both countries draw from a wide range of recruitment sources both intemal and extemal. Hotels in Australia and Singapore tend to place greater reliance on recmiting from an intemal labour market of current employees within the establishment and from other hotels which are part of the chain within the same ownership. Although this was perceived to be more evident in the Australian environment, this was inclusive of promotions as well as transfers of casual and parttime staff. There was also the consideration that Singapore had a more stable labour force of full and part-time employees, while the Australian hotel industry tends to rely on a higher proportion of casuals in employment, thereby implicitly contributing to tumover levels to a greater degree. However, in both instances, the use of this intemal labour source was predominantly restricted to supervisory positions and above, usually associated with a career development plan. Such efforts to develop career paths would assist in overcoming a major reason given for tumover in the industry in Australia  as identified in a survey (KPMG Peat Marwick Management, 1991). None the less, this effort has resulted in the per centage of managerial promotions, in at least one hotel each, as high as 85 per cent in Singapore and 95 per cent in Australia. Intemal allocative strategies are therefore encouraged where extemal recmiting costs can be reduced because, for example, current staff do not require re-training or acculturation into the organization; i.e. the direct costs of tumover (Woods and Macauley, 1989; Boella, 1988; Woods, 1992; Mullins, 1995; Mercer, 1988). As such, this can be perceived directly to drive staff tumover levels down (Simms et al. 1988; Debrah, 1994) through increas ed promotional and career opportunities (Woods and Macauley, 1989). Extemal sources of new recmits included: databases of previous applicants, unsolicited applicants, newspaper advertising, employee referrals, recmitment consultants, industrial attachments and networks with associates in the industry. Hotels in Singapore seem to be more resourceful in attracting new people with employee referrals becoming increasingly popular, where current employees are usually offered incentives for a new staff member employed on their recommendation. Although there is no scientific evidence to support this theory, hoteliers argue the general principle on the basis that birds of a feather flock together; that is, referred potential candidates would be expected to be of similar calibre, personality and behavioural qualities to the referrer since they are friends or family. This reduces the cost of extemal sourcing, as well as a diminished probability of tumover occurring through the yielding of more reliable and committed employees (Debrah, 1994). Networking is also more prevalent in Singapore than in Australia. Despite it being regarded as a form of people-poaching, it is considered common practice in Singapore. Hoteliers in Australia, on the other hand, generally do not support this mode of recmitment as it is considered there, to some degree, unethical and generally not very nice. Both countries, however, attributed their respective stances to the small but close-knit fratemity of the hotel trade. HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 143 To combat the potential difficulties of building a full-time committed work-force in Singapore, Debrah (1994) in his earlier research, pointed to the use of part-time staff. Benefits that accme through employing regular part timers include increased flexibility in scheduling, thereby reducing the impact of tumover (Greengard, 1995), as well as lower wage outlays (Inman and Enz, 1995). Although this practice is prevalent in the Australian hotel industry, where sometimes up to half of the total employee population are part timers or casuals, part timers are usually hired on a needs basis and predominantly in the food and beverage (FB) or banqueting departments in Singapore (Debrah, 1994). Hotels in Australia are typically seen by young people as a source of casual employment due to ease of entry. A problem increasingly faced by Singaporean hotels due to rising educational standards and employee expectations is the shortage of applicants for the less desirable shift-work positions mainly at the operative level. One hotel, at least, has attempted to combat this through the hiring of foreign labour, mainly from Malaysia. While interviews remain a core selection device, there is an increased emphasis placed on the behavioural aspects of a potential candidate in both countries, where selection tools are used to assist in determining a persons personality, attitude and character in relation to the specifications that a position may require. It was felt that experience and expertise, although valuable, could be gained from training and development while attitude and personality were more important in new recmits in attempting to fit employees into a particular organizational culture. Singapore, however, has a more dominant use of the behavioural interview than Australia, where attitude is perceived to be more important than experience. This is assessed essentially through structured, oral employment tests given to potential candidates in the course of the interview. Berger and Ghei (1995) further argue that this method is more effective in the selection of new hires than more commonly practised approaches, e.g. reference checking, which the Australian hotel industry  utilizes extensively, biodata through weighted application blanks, etc. However, a sample of employment tests from a couple of respondents suggests that the behavioural interviews conducted in the Singapore hotel industry have a primary focus on the biodat a of a potential candidate. Current literature also supports a higher correlation between biodata and the eventual retention of that person (Dickenson and Ineson, 1993; Mitchell, 1989; Ineson and Brown, 1992) according to the past behaviours and reactions, attitudes, interests, etc. Reference checking was advocated by Dunn (1995) as a proactive and aggressive way of reducing tumover and maintaining a higher work-force quality. Despite obvious disadvantages like potential litigation consequences, e.g. defamation, negligent hiring suits (Dunn, 1995), the Australian lodging trade diligently adopts this approach when employing. There was significantly less importance placed on this method of selection, as apparent through its lack of use, by Singaporean hoteliers. Industrial placement, however, is a common practice in both countries. Although generally regarded as a labour source, industrial placement (referred to as work attachment in Singapore) has not been maximally utilized as a selection tool in either Australia or Singapore. Despite some evidence of it occurring, the potential benefits of effectively utilizing this practice as a selection tool are not being fully realized; for example, that applicants would ah-eady be familiar with the organization (Leslie, 19 91), thus having a realistic preview (Woods and Macauley, 1989), thereby increasing the retention probability for that person (Hom and Griffeth, 1995). At the 144 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown same time, the applicant would already be trained in their area of operations, thereby directly and positively impacting on recmitment and training costs. The labour-scarce situation afflicting the Singapore hotel trade is, to a large extent, attributed as the major factor influencing modifications in local hiring practices, which supports earlier research (Debrah, 1994: Nankervis and Debrah, 1995). This is especially so in relation to the recmitment sources the industry approaches in seeking new  hires. However, some of these approaches may seem to exacerbate, rather than mitigate, labour tumover despite an acknowledgement of their detrimental effects. For example, networking as a labour source would probably indicate recmiting a new hire from another hotel. This would inevitably mean filling a position in one property at the expense of increased tumover in another. On the other hand, Australia has been comparatively slow in adopting more innovative methods of recmitment and selection, although there is an indication of a move towards a more strategic direction. Although acknowledged as an issue, tumover is not given priority consideration when hiring even though there is a recognized need for a match between the organizations values and the potential employee. Rather, a reduction in labour tumover is essentially considered an incidental benefit to the meeting of organizational and operational objectives. In summary, hotels in both countries are placing more emphasis on recmitment and selection practices in an effort to reduce the potential for labour tumover. Variations exist where Singapore places more emphasis on behavioural interviews, employee referrals and networking, while Australian hotels emphasize reference checks and assessing attitudes in the employment interview. Australian hotels also tend to use more casual employees than their Singaporean counterparts. Orientation and socialization Induction sessions in hotels of both countries were conducted regularly upon the employment of a new recmit, consistent with Mullins (1995) suggestion that orientation is basically a natural extension of the recmitment and selection function. Hotels in both Singapore and Australia were seen to conduct both general and departmental orientation (St. John, 1980; Kennedy and Berger, 1994; Eade, 1993) in order to provide overall hotel information, as well as specific job details. General orientation for new employees in Singaporean hotels ranges from two hours to 90 days, while in Australia between two hours and one and a half days is the norm. The content of these sessions is comparable and includes hotel cultures, employee handbook, mles and regulations, health and safety procedures, salary details and so on. More specific orientation is the responsibility of the employing department. The importance of this function in facilitating and sustaining the long-term retention of employees was perceived to be recognized by all respondents. It was basically a matter of familiarizing new employees with the daily operational requirements and culture of the organization (Mullins, 1995; Eade, 1993; Thompson and Abbott, 1990); that is, acculturating them into the organization in order to align their individual goals with that of the hotel. To encourage this assimilation, Singapore hoteliers tend to be more systematic in the orientation process and usually conduct interim and follow-up sessions to provide employees an opportunity for feedback (Eade, 1993) as well as to evaluate their progress (Day, 1988). These sessions were usually related to a probationary employment condition to which newcomers are subjected (Thompson and Abbott, 1990) in an HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 145 effort to further ensure a person-position match for both the organization and employee. This practice, however, was more evident in Singapore (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995), since only two hotels in Australia had this system in place. For purposes of inducting and eventually training new employees, some hotels in Singapore have in place a buddy system where new employees are matched with seasoned, experienced staff members who are responsible for their training. This concept has been supported as providing new hires with the guidance that may be needed in training and providing answers (Eade, 1993; Day, 1988), particularly where there is a case of information overload, that is, too much information being disseminated within that short span of time. Despite the potential benefits of this practice, however, only one Australian hotel explicitly suggested the availability of such a system, but for specified lower-level positions only. Some of the available literature suggests that existing employees could, in effect, also reap positive experiences through an organizations induction  of new employees. This is based on the assumption that current staff would also have to adjust to changes within an organization, as, for example, to a new colleague (Sutton and Reis Louis, 1987; Day, 1988). Perhaps this lack of consideration of current staff might, to some extent, account for labour tumover that occurs, not within the confines of the induction [or] recruitment crisis (Thompson and Abbott, 1990; Mullins, 1995), but among seasoned employees who may have been conveniently overlooked in relation to organizational modifications. One way of potentially combating this problem is to conduct re-orientation programmes for staff. Deemed important by both the Singapore and Australian hotel industry, these sessions take into account old employees, e.g. people who have been with the hotel since its founding, sometimes up to twenty five years. The primary rationale is to reiterate organizational philosophies and values or to communicate recent or planned changes in a hotels culture or structure (Martin and Van Eck Peluchette, 1989). Despite the potential benefits, such sessions are only conducted by all Australian hoteliers, with only one hotel in Singapore administering annual corporate reorientations for seasoned employees. This is notwithstanding the age of some of the Singapore hotels, whose history may go as far back as twenty five years. Generally, induction is still regarded as exerting a significant and direct impact on the successful retention of employees. This relates to the consistency of products and services provided by the hotel industry primarily through its human resources (Denvir and McMahon, 1992). Therefore, orientation and socialization essentially serve the hotel industries by apprising newcomers of, acculturating and gelling them into to the organization, thereby minimizing the probability, and eliminating a potentially major cause, of labour tumover such that there is a stable foundation from which the hotel can operate. Training and development There is a clear recognition in both countries of the strategic contribution made by training to the retention of staff that the willingness to invest in an organizations people leads to an increase in their commitment and job satisfaction, leading to a reduction in staff tumover (Woods and Macaulay,  1989; Conrade et al., 1994). Training needs analyses are generally carried out by the hotels in both countries, although Singaporean hoteliers were perceived to be more systematic in establishing potential training requirements. There is a greater emphasis on analysing guest 146 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown comment cards in the Australian hotel trade, whereas only two Singaporean properties explicitly take customer comments into account when determining training needs. One Australian hotel, on the other hand, basically depends on consultation sessions among staff to gain infonnation and feedback on potential gaps in employee training and development. Despite these systems of determination, only one hotel in each country had a training directory, with the remaining properties generally having a list that employees could be referred to. To some degree, this may reflect Conrade et al.s (1994) suggestion that, despite the importance and significance training is accorded within the industry, the reality of the availability of such planned, quality training programmes within hotels is limited. The content of training and development programmes was relatively similar in Singapore and Australia and included: language courses, quality management, health, stress handling and telephone etiquette. Job-related skills were also an important component of training. Much of this training is done in-house, although for managerial and supervisory employees extemal sources are usually utilized. None the less, there was an emphasis on the involvement of line employees in the administration of the training function. The Singapore lodging trade expressed this delegation of responsibility through the constant interaction between supervisor and employee (St. John, 1980; Day, 1988), whereas the Australian hotels validated this practice based on the training requirements of the industry, e.g. on-the-job training and as a control mechanism in training effectiveness (Day, 1988). This argument also aligns itself with Tysons (1995) suggestion that the HRM function will become more functional throu gh its integration with line management. Developmental opportunities were perceived to be linked to the training function in the industries of both countries. Employees are primarily trained to the requirements of their job, with a secondary focus on fulfilling their individual needs that is usually required to be in alignment with the operational needs of the hotel (Tracey and Tews, 1995; Walker, 1992; Mabey and Salaman, 1995). This again relates, to a degree, to the earlier argument, put forward with regard to the willingness to invest in people, that a workers need for growth and leaming can be met with a sense of morale and commitment (Mullins, 1995). Hotels in both cultures provide developmental opportunities for employees, generally incorporating an open-door policy, i.e. staff can approach and discuss with the HR department or person-in-charge their leaming directions and career aspirations. Most hotels adopt a more systematic and regular approach to involving employee feedback through the perfonnance management process; this will be discussed in greater detail in the next section. There was, nevertheless, a more methodical approach to career development in the Australian industry. Four hotels, compared to only two in Singapore, had adopted a formal targeted development programme for staff at all levels. This response does not take into account any future plans to formalize developmental opponunities in the hotels, is more evident in Singapore, where the youthful age of some of the hotels may have accounted for the cunent lack of systematic developmental practices. The presence of formal career paths may, in effect, reflect the progress Australian hoteliers have experienced in their attempts to modify a short-term employment perception (Timo, cited in Nankervis, 1993b), contrary to the recent findings of Nankervis and Debrah that suggested casual and transient employment was endemic (1995: 33) and a lack of formal career paths in the hotel industry. HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 147 None the less, the existence of developmental opportunities were evidence of the hotel industries attempts to minimize voluntary staff tumover through long-term career opportunities in the trade (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995; Nankervis, 1993b). This consequently acts to offset the perception that labour tumover is an inherent and acceptable facet of the hotel industry (Mullins, 1995; Riley, 1991a; Woods, 1994; Meier, 1991), supporting the argument that it is manageable through effective HR practices. Mabey and Salaman (1995: 130) further argue that an investment [in an organizations people] will allow them to respond more effectively in a changing environment. This is especially tme considering the dynamic nature of the hotel trade, where consistency in service through an organizations people is considered most important (Denvir and McMahon, 1992; Anastassova and Purcell, 1995; Berger and Ghei, 1995). This may therefore be achieved through the use of training and development as an agent of change (Mabey and Salaman, 1995), where employees may be constantly informed and updated about, as well as strategically equipped for, the changing requirements of the hotel. Performance management Evaluating an employees performance is viewed as being very much related to employee development within the hotel trades of both countries. The prevalent adoption of this function in Australia reflects a significant improvement where earlier research (Nankervis, 1991, 1993a) showed a comparatively low usage of performance appraisal. A management-by-objectives (MBO) approach (Oberg, 1972; Kramar, 1994) to perfonnance management is used by all but one of the hotels in each country. This usually involves both supervisors and employees completing separate evaluation forms and conferring on the final report. Employee feedback and input are considered significant parts of the performance appraisal process, which is essentially modelled after the performance development plan (PDP) adopted by Harvey Hotels (Beckert and Walsh, 1991). The exceptions were primarily attributed to the fact that employee appraisal may not be as effective as a democratic process, for example where supervisors may not  want to create undue conflict and many attempt to be nice about the assessment. This would essentially introduce inaccuracy and prejudice into the procedure and would therefore reduce its effectiveness. Hotels in both countries distinguished between managerial and operative staff for performance management processes, with some hotels also having different appraisal standards among the particular levels of management, e.g. supervisory, middle management, etc. However, there was a general consensus on the criteria against which managerial and operative employees were evaluated: behavioural aspects were stressed for the fomier, with the latter being assessed on the more generic aspects of performance (Eade, 1993). In spite of the various appraisal methods available (Eade, 1993; Walker, 1992) (peer evaluation, subordinate appraisal, etc. all the hotels interviewed adopted a supervisor subordinate approach to assessing an employees performance and determining potential developmental requirements. However, half the sample in Australia adopted a combination of appraisal techniques, i.e. self-appraisal in conjunction with supervisor subordinate evaluation. This could be perceived to provide increased employee input, as well as a more balanced assessment of that staff member. The employee input was often 148 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown viewed as an important mechanism for them to express issues relating to their developmental needs. One Singaporean hotel, however, was more rigorous in its appraisal process with the secondary supervisor also required to appraise the employee. This could be perceived to lessen any potential bias on the part of the immediate supervisor, and provide a more impartial and accurate evaluation of the worker. In Singapore, apart from assessing the overall performance of an employee through identifying and evaluating weaknesses and strengths, performance management was often used as a means of justifying remuneration adjustments. This was less common in Australia where award rates of payment rather than individual contracts govem pay rates. The frequency of conducting the performance management interview is also consistent between the two countries, i.e. either semi-annually or annually. In instances where probationary periods are required for newcomers, the first performance assessment occurs at the end of that period. Since probationary periods are more prevalent in Singapore, the early occurrence of this process also serves to diminish, somewhat, the incidence of staff tumover as a result of the recruitment [or] induction crisis (Mullins, 1995; and Thompson and Abbott, 1990), acting as an opportunity for feedback, clarification and identification of any necessary training needs. There was, none the less, an emphasis on determining an employees potential developmental needs through the identification of discrepancies in meeting performance objectives (Walker, 1992; Riley, 1991a). Exit interviews as a final evaluation process were a more commonly used among Singaporean hoteliers, even though there was one hotel in each country that did not see the need to undertake this practice. Despite the evidence that formal exit interviews are conducted with departing Australian employees, the ability to utilize the information derived effectively in identifying and isolating possible causes of tumover (Mok and Luk, 1995; Eade, 1993; Vetula, 1991; Kiechel, 1992), and consequently to propose necessary corrective action (Woods and Macauley, 1987), is more apparent in the Singapore hotel industry. Exit interviews in Australia are predominantly conducted as a routine process to ensure that final administrative matters are resolved before the employee leaves. Overall, although considered to be significant and contributory to the bottom-line, the performance management function is generally viewed as having an indirect effect on labour tumover in both countries, primarily through its determination of an employees training requirements, developmental opportunities and remuneration issues. Remuneration The role of remuneration was similarly perceived, in both industries, to be a  secondary factor through which labour tumover can be mitigated, especially monetary compensation. Generally incongruous with the limited literature that argues that remuneration is a major contributing factor in labour tumover (Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Woods and Macauley, 1989), the role compensation plays in the hiring and retention of staff was, however, acknowledged to primarily be through the concept of equity, value and satisfaction (Walker, 1992; Riley, 1991a). According to the expectancy theory (Mullins, 1995), there would be an increased tendency for people to leave an organization if a discrepancy existed between their expected and associated value, evident through the remuneration received. For example, if employees feel they are not compensated in accordance with the service provided to HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotei industry 149 the organization, they would be inclined to feel unappreciated and undervalued, thereby contributing to their decision to leave the company. This diminished significance attributed to remuneration, however, does not discount the contributory role that compensation plays in a hotels tumover statistics, and associated consequences like labour shortage, hiring expenses, etc. (Woods and Macauley, 1989; Boella, 1988; Woods, 1992; Mullins, 1995; Denvir and McMahon, 1992; Riley, 1991a; Lewis, 1989). There is also a direct impact on an organizations bottom-line essentially through a potential reduction in employee start-up costs, which include orientation, socialization, training, etc. However, remuneration has a comparatively large influence on tumover in Singapore. Unlike the Australian hotel industry that pays award rates for operative staff, different hotels in Singapore pay different rates according to their individual collective agreements (Debrah, 1994). Because of the tight labour market (Debrah, 1994; Goh et al., 1995), potential employees are allowed to choose their employers and work environments, a process  which may include job-hopping to hotels that can afford to pay higher wages (Debrah, 1994). However, the differences in the impact of compensation policies on supervisory and managerial staff in Australia and Singapore were comparatively negligible. The remuneration received by these salarial staff is not performance-based, but positionbased, thereby hardly affecting decisions of tumover and retention. Remuneration in Singapore, however, refers to a total compensation package, unlike in Australia where it refers primarily to monetary compensation, i.e. basic pay. The package is generally inclusive of the basic wage or salary, insurance coverage and fringe benefits, e.g. discount rates at sister-hotels (Walker, 1992). Employees at this level tended to remain with their employer for factors other than money. The impact of remuneration on labour tumover can therefore be perceived to be secondary, although more direct in Singapore, under conditions of labour scarcity and a potentially competitive wage market. Even so, in Australia, where particular categories of employees, such as chefs, are in relatively short supply, remuneration packages may play a role in attracting and retaining them. However, the function of remuneration has not been ignored, particularly in relation to the concepts of expectancy and equity. In summary, people would leave if they are not compensated according to their expectations, suggesting therefore a direct, albeit minimal, influence on labour tumover. Conclusions This research suggests that hoteliers in Singapore and Australia are adopting a more strategic perspective to HRM in tackling labour tumover. In both countries the greatest emphasis was placed on recruitment, selection, induction, socialization and training and development practices as mechanisms for minimizing tumover. Performance management and remuneration strategies were seen as having a more indirect impact through the strategies listed above. The broad range of strategies adopted by Singapore hoteliers to combat the initial difficulties in recruitment (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995) reflect a longer-term approach to HRM. This could be attributed to the correspondingly higher tumover rates in the hotels and the countrys low unemployment rate, and hence the industrys concened effort to attract and retain committed employees. However, it needs to be recognized 150 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Table 4 Key differences in HR activities between Singapore and Australia HR practices and policies Singapore Australia Recruitment †¢ Employee referrals †¢ Networking †¢ Reliance on part-time staff Selection †¢ Structured interviews behavioural emphasis †¢ Skills tests †¢ Person-job specifications †¢ Structured interviews †¢ Reference checking Orientation socialization (induction) †¢ Follow up feedback sessions †¢ Buddy system Training †¢ Guest comments analysis †¢ Employee consultation Development †¢ Targeted development, e.g. management trainee programme Performance management †¢ Impact on remuneration policies operative levels †¢ Exit interviews †¢ Limited impact on remuneration policies Remuneration †¢ Annual remuneration review position perfonnance based †¢ Individual collective agreements for operative staff †¢ Package remuneration †¢ Annual remuneration review position-based only †¢ Award rates for operative staff †¢ Monetary compensation that the attention given to recmitment and selection is as much an operational matter as it is a strategic approach attempting to reduce tumover. Orientation and socialization processes were emphasized similarly in Singapore and Australia, although there was comparatively more utilization of probationary periods (Eade, 1993; Thompson and Abbott, 1990; Day, 1988) and a buddy system (Eade, 1993: Day, 1988) to ensure an employees effective assimilation into the hotel in Singapore. Training in both countries has been closely associated with the induction process, with the latter seeming to be considered a subset of the former. Because orientation involves the basic operational instmction of staff, it is perceived to be part of the overall training function. Nonetheless, tumover is perceived to be significantly influenced by willingness to invest in this function, and therefore in an organizations human resources, such that there may be an increased sense of job satisfaction and morale; thereby retaining staff (Woods and Macauley, 1989; Conrade et al., 1994). Although developmental opportunities are present in both Singapore and Australia, they are concentrated in the supervisory and managerial, and therefore skilled (Riley, 1991), levels of the organization. None the less, the correlation between developmental paths and an organizations tumover rates were apparent, that is the opportunity to grow and advance within an organization would offset a perception of h otel employment as HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 151 transient and casual (Nankervis, 1993b; Woods, 1992; Riley, 1991a; Mullins, 1995; Denvir and McMahon, 1992) through the availability of true career  paths. Performance appraisal and remuneration policies have minimal impact on labour tumover, except on the operative staff in Singapore where wages are negotiable and individually determined according to the collective agreements of each property. 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